Towards portable X-ray spectroscopic imaging of Palaeolithic cave art. Insights into used pigments and wall taphonomy at three Palaeolithic key cave sites

Palaeolithic cave art has taken a more and more important place in our cultural heritage. Its preservation is one of the major issues and involves necessarily a better understanding of the cave environments and of their evolution over time. However, the on-site geo-physico- chemical study of archaeological record stays dif cult and the conservation of its integrity imposes restrictions. Taking bene t of recent analytical developments in the X-ray eld, new perspectives of acquiring statistically relevant data for archaeological interpretation directly in the eld are provided by the implementation of portable and non-invasive characterization methods. It allows the improvement of archaeological and physico-chemical knowledge about the pigments used, the evaluation of the state of wall decorated surfaces over time and a better assessment of the relationship between pigment and wall support.For these purposes, complementary self-built portable spectrometers (X-ray uorescence in one and two dimensional mode, X-ray diffraction) are combined to perform qualitative and quantitative characterization of the pigments and cave walls as well as for chemical imaging on a decimetre scale. By using this combination of portable instruments the feasibility of analysis under very dif cult conditions speci c to the cave environments (humidity, temperature, dif cult access to the caves and to the decorated panels) was shown. Special spectrum evaluation procedures have been developed to take into account the heterogeneity of the cave walls in order to gain reliable data for chemical characterisation. The ef ciency of the analytical procedure has been demonstrated for three major cave sites featuring Palaeolithic art: Font-de-Gaume and Rouf gnac cave in Dordogne (France) and La Garma in Cantabria (Spain).A large assortment of colours can be observed in these caves (red, black, yellow and purple), associated to different mineral phases (iron and/or manganese oxides, charcoal and mixtures). Their detailed characterization provides an improved comprehension of the pictorial techniques used. Furthermore, it allows a better comparison between representations in a same cave, giving more detailed insights into its pictorial homogeneity and the different execution phases of its gures. As an example, the results obtained at Rouf gnac cave showed that heterogeneous mixtures of manganese oxides have been employed to design the 65 Great Ceiling gures whereas a unique pigment mixture has been used for the drawing of the Ten Mammoths Frieze. Further information has been obtained on the taphonomic wall processes.The spectroscopic study of these cave art illustrate the strong potential of such combined in situ and non-invasive analyses to better characterize the prehistoric gures in their cave environment and in a wider perspective to better understand the symbolic practices of past societies, appreciate possible cultural changes and relationships within the Franco-Cantabrian region.