Anton Pannekoek, Marxist astronomer:Photography, epistemic virtues, and political philosophy in early twentieth-century astronomy

Anton Pannekoek (1873-1960) was both an innovative astronomer and influential Marxist thinker. This dissertation discusses Pannekoek's astronomical research both in the context of the historical development of astronomy and his own Marxist philosophy. Each chapter covers a different aspect of his research: his efforts to represent the appearance of the Milky Way, his statistical research on the distributions of stars in the galaxy, and his contributions to the astrophysics of stellar atmospheres. The focus throughout these chapters is on three historiographical themes: the impact of photography on astronomy, Pannekoek's epistemic virtues, and the connections between his astronomy and Marxism. Photography, on a practical level, enabled Pannekoek to conduct observational research despite lacking an observatory. On an epistemological level, it allowed him to reduce, but not eliminate, the human aspect of observation. Pannekoek’s photographic research illustrates that photographic plates were material objects that travelled and required significant labour to transform them into scientific knowledge. The focus on Pannekoek’s epistemic virtues, in particular his emphasis on judgement and thoroughness, highlight the differences between his scientific methodology and that of his contemporaries. It also clarifies how he adapted this methodology according to his practical constraints and personal convictions. Finally, investigating the relations between Pannekoek’s astronomy and his Marxism uncovers numerous ways in which these were interconnected: in his philosophy of mind, in analogous ways of thinking about systems, or in the goal of scientific research. In doing so, this thesis provides a more unified and complete description of Pannekoek’s entire professional life.